Discuss why some people are not convinced by the idea of postmodern media.

Modernism started around the 1850’s. Modern art was driven by social and cultural agendas appropriate to the time. For example industrialisation, emancipation of women, universal education and the impact of war, religion and science on everyday life. The modernist perspective was often utopian. Modernism is viewed as having ended at some point in 1960’s. Simply put, Andy Warhol began painting pictures of soup cans, postmodernism became the term to use. Postmodernism reached its zenith in the 1980’s and 1990’s. But it is still a useful catch all term and is used and misused to describe whatever you choose. George Ritzer suggested that postmodern usually refers to cultural movement involving architecture, art, music, films, TV and adverts. He also claimed that postmodern culture is signified by the following statements. For example the distinction between high and mass culture, the breakdown of barriers between genres and style, mixing up of time, space and narrative, emphasis on style rather than content and the distinction between representation and reality. Some people argue that postmodernism is too vague and question whether or not it is real as the texts are usually a copy of something so that the literate audience can identify these intertextual references. It can also be difficult to take seriously because postmodern texts generally include a range of parody, pastiche, homage and hyper reality. Postmodernism has also been said to be too complex for something supposedly so simple. Texts can sometimes be quite difficult to understand by some audiences as simple aspects are often over thought. If postmodern texts continue to evolve in the future; the whole idea of postmodernism may lose its value because no texts will be different and anything could be considered ‘postmodern’. Some texts are easier to explain than others although some are not serious enough to be considered postmodern. Another key argument is whether or not you can separate modernism and postmodernism as some would argue postmodernism is not as new as it claims to be. For example the use of intertextuality, parody and pastiche is used in many postmodern texts but also in modernist texts as well.

One postmodern film that I have studied is the 2011 film Drive. This particular film includes a wide range of postmodern elements but some would consider controversial as they are not convinced by the idea of postmodernism. The most obvious postmodern element in this film is the lack of dialogue. The characters that we are introduced to show no emotion or reaction to anything that goes on in the city. This is very unusual as the film is set in Los Angeles and it almost seems deserted because we are only introduced to a small amount of characters throughout the film. The murders get increasingly graphic in the film and the criminals never seem to get caught so the police seem irrelevant. This lack of dialogue enhances The Driver’s psychopathic traits as he shows no reaction to anything that he witnesses or does. An example of a scene which emphasises the lack of dialogue is the lift and driving scene. The lift scene is self reflexive and uses slow motion to highlight the connection between the Driver and Irene. The light also changes which also draws attention to the film as a text and introduces emotion for the first time. This emotion is very strong and genuine and introduces the human aspect for the first time. When the calming music fades and the scene resumes to real time, the violence begins and the audience is reminded that it is a reality and not a representation. At this stage, Irene finally see’s who The Driver really is. The expression on her face shows how shocked she is although The Driver still seems emotionless which the audience see’s as very unusual.

This lack of dialogue, use of slow motion and having scenes lit with a golden hue emphasises the utopian aspect and the film’s idyllic heart with the idea of a stereotypical fairytale. These particular scenes shows the Drive fitting in with the family, which Standard, Irene’s husband seemingly accepts which is also unusual because the audience see’s him as interfering. The lack of dialogue may confuse the audience so they may struggle to be convinced by this element. The lack of dialogue creates a very tense and awkward atmosphere which is very hard to understand if the audience has not witnessed this strange element in other films. We know very little about the Driver’s past but we can see that he is very dark, insular and violent but we do not know what his motivation is or what he does. We do know he is a criminal because he starts off as a getaway driver for bad people just like the getaway scenes from the 1978 film The Driver. The city and the characters are dystopian as the Driver is responsible for the deaths of Shannon and Standard and he has left Benicio fatherless and Irene a widow. Although he can also be seen as a hero as he left the money to ensure their security. He is not a flawless Hollywood conventional hero which makes his character very difficult to understand because he is so unique and sinister. Baudrillard’s theory of simulacra and simulation can be applied to the film which claims that current society has replaced all reality and meaning with symbols and signs and that human experience is of a simulation of reality ‘like a movie’. Individuals who are not convinced by the postmodern aspects in the film may find it hard to separate image from reality. Levi Strauss’s theory of bricolage can also be applied as the film covers genres as diverse as crime, drama and thriller. Therefore it can be described as a hybrid when being applied to Jacques Derrida’s theory.

The idea that the film is set in such a large city with such a small population makes the characters seem more vulnerable which links to the intertextual reference to the video game Grand Theft Auto. The city is also used to enhance characters that are shallow and oppressive as it offers little comfort and no escape.  The whole environment is portrayed as a playground and the murders that take place are very similar to those that are set in missions in the game. Some of the murders are every glamorised which makes the audience very hard to convince because they are so stylised. The graphic violence is also reminiscent to the violence in the 2005 film A History of Violence. The violence is brutal and very hyper real which makes it very hard to convince the audience that it is real. Laura Mulvey’s Male Gaze theory can also be applied to the film as there is a scene in the club where the Driver is surrounded by a group of topless women. The use of mirrors and the way that the camera lingers around the women’s features highlights how the men look at and treat the women. Another link to the video game is the pink 80’s style font that is displayed in the titles. Similar style music is also played even though the film is set in the modern day. The music is described as an 80’s style synthesiser and an example ‘A Real Hero’ by College ft. Electric Youth. The music was pioneered by European electronic bands such as Kraftwerk and other retro 80’s style work.  These postmodern elements used throughout the film can be very difficult to convince the audience as to why they are used. If the audience do not understand postmodernism, they would find the film very hard to follow which is an issue. Not everyone agrees with the ideas of postmodernism and many dispute the ideas commonly associated with the term. Therefore people may reject some of the elements and concepts in Drive because they are not convinced by how it works.

Individuals are also not always convinced by postmodern TV programmes. An example is Flight of the Conchords. This programme is self reflexive as the characters make regular eye contact with the camera and quirky style graphics are also used. In one of the episodes that I watched there were intertextual references to Prince, Daft Punk, Pet Shops Boys and Shaggy. Bricolage is used as the programme is portrayed as a sitcom, musical, music video and a drama. Cut and paste style graphics are also used as well as a semi episodic structure. Parody and pastiche is also used as elements of music genres, music video conventions, romantic comedy and stereotypical New Zealand features. There are also references to Hall and Oates who were a pop duo in the 80’s, ZZ Top’s ‘Legs’ and Donovan’s ‘Hurdy Gurdy Man’. In another episode that I watched, there were also intertextual references made such as Simon and Garfunkel, Elton John and other lookalikes. This episode mocked the idea of lookalikes by taking the image so far and making them like stereotypes. There was also a parody made for the Prime Minister of New Zealand which represented him as a shambolic idiot. If audiences do not understand the humour in postmodernism they may not be convinced by programmes such as this one because they take humour so far that it is quite silly. Television adverts can also be considered postmodern but are not always convincing. Parodies of original adverts are very common. An example is the Cadbury’s advert and the Wonder bra advert which is the parody of the video. By making a parody it makes the adverts more recognisable because the audience relate to what they have already seen which apples to John Fiske’s theory. However, there are a number of issues with postmodern adverts. For example they make it seem like everything is perfect. With the Smirnoff advert, they almost advertise the night out, rather than the drink itself. The experiences are sometimes unrealistic and there are also issues of authenticity.

Some people are also not convinced by postmodern music. This may be because people believe that genres are mutating too fats with the developments of technology and now there are just too many styles around. This relates to Brian Eno’s theory of ‘the death of uncool’. This claims nothing is ‘uncool’ anymore because are so many genres and styles to take an interest in. It also involves the idea that some artists are so bad that they are good because they are so diverse. One artist that is considered postmodern and took some time to convince her audience to take a liking to her is Lady Gaga. She is now considered an icon because of her unique fashion sense, song writing, singing, dancer and her role as an activist. When writing her songs, Gaga develops ideas from other inspirational songs from artists she admires such as Queen and David Bowie.  For example the song ‘Boys boys boys’ on her first album was written based on a mash up of Motley Crue’s ‘Girls girls girls’ and AC/DC’s ‘TNT’. Gaga echoes classic 1980’s pop and 1990’s Europop and her albums are said to include an element of pastiche which include seventies arena glam, perky ABBA disco and sugary throwbacks like Stacey Q. She engages in bricolage as she can cover a wide range of genres such as opera, heavy metal, rock and roll and pop. She also constantly reinvents her sound and image. Lady Gaga can be applied to Jonathan Kramer’s theory because she challenges the barrier between high and low styles, she considers music not as autonomous but as relevant to cultural, social and political contexts, she embraces contradictions and locates meaning and even structure in listeners, more than in scores, performances or composers. Because of her unique and very unusual style, she can be considered cool in an ironic ‘I know it bad but it’s so bad its good’ kind of way. At the beginning of her music career, it took a while for people to warm to her unusual style and personality because they thought she was so strange but she expressed her confidence which shows she isn’t ashamed of who she is. She also fits into Jean Baudrillard’s theory as she is a prime example of how the barriers between art, literature and a wider political and social life are now non-existent. She has also created a new status for art culture. Art does not represent or reflect reality, it is reality. She shows this through her strong opinions, beliefs and iconic style.

These examples of postmodern media show that not all audiences are convinced by postmodernism. Many of the critics see postmodernism as offensive as they believe texts are just an imitation of another text. The phenomenon has emerged from so many different disciplines that it is difficult to define. Another criticism is that it is really a descriptive rather than a prescriptive movement. It tries to describe current phenomena but does not really move towards any idea of how we should progress from this point.

Revision Notes.

Media Notes

Mix Tape.

'Top To Bottom'

1. Elbow - The Bones of You (4.50)
2. Adele - Cold Shoulder (3.11)
3. Ellie Goulding - Starry Eyed (3.01)
4. Beyonce - Broken Hearted Girl (4.40)
5. Lana Del Rey - Born To Die (4.47)
6. Lady Gaga - Brown Eyes (4.04)
7. Kate Nash - Skeleton Song (5.08)
8. Olly Murs - Heart Skips a Beat (3.27)
9. Natasha Bedingfield - Touch (3.45)
10. Florence and The Machine - Between Two Lungs (3.58)
11. Snow Patrol - Grazed Knees (2.56)
12. Mylo - In My Arms (3.55)
13. Oasis - My Big Mouth (5.02)
14. Kelly Clarkson - Walk Away (3.09)
15. The Vaccines - Under Your Thumb (2.20)
16. Lily Allen - Smile (3.18)
17. Owl City - Rainbow Veins (5.32)
18. Melanie C - Immune (4.36)
19. The Saturdays - My Heart Takes Over (3.46)
20. The Ting Tings - Hands (3.19)

(Running Time: 20 tracks - 75.24)

The title of my mix tape is 'Top To Bottom'. This title was constructed around the theme of the human body and includes songs about parts of the body from 'Top To Bottom'.  It includes a wide range of songs based around the body and also senses. I decided to focus on this theme as there are thousands of songs with the titles of either body parts or feelings. Because it is such a wide topic to focus on, I have included songs from different music genres and artists to create a contrast within the track list. I also tried to include as many parts of the body as possible to keep the mix tape interesting throughout but still keeping within the theme. My cover image is relevant to this theme of the mix tape as I decided to focus on one part of the body, in this case the hands which is the title of one of the songs included on the tape. The picture is quite effective and is one I found from the internet and then went on to edit on Photoshop. I changed the opacity, brightness and contrast to create quite a dark and mysterious tone. Because the theme is quite simple, I thought this would work quite well because it doesn't create any particular focusing point. The image is also enhanced by small, simple text surrounding it which lists a few songs and also has the title of the mix tape itself. The choice of image also balances out all of the genres included as it doesn't just focus on one area of music.

1b – Representation

I am going to discuss representation in relation to my advanced portfolio which was a music video to the Little Comet’s song ‘One night in October’.

The type of genre that our band fits into is the indie genre. We chose to have a band with mixed sexes to appeal to everyone in our target audience of individuals aged between 16 and 24. Before getting the band together it was important to research what other indie bands look and act like so that our band would fit in with them and can be compared to them. We looked at bands such as The Drums, The Kooks, The Vaccines, Arctic Monkeys and Friendly Fires. We specifically looked at these band’s styles and we found that all look like they fit in this particular music genre. Our band consists of 3 teenagers; two boys and a girl. We wanted our band to be easy to identify so we chose to dress them like other indie bands and also act like them. We considered Richard Dyer’s ‘phenomenon of consumption’ theory who proposed that a star is an image. Not a real person that is constructed out of a range of materials. We applied this theory as we slightly mocked the genre because we took the image and appearance so far that it was clear that the band were indie. Part of Dyer’s theory involved the aspect of emotional affinity. I feel that our band expresses this successfully. As they create an emotional bond with the audience by making eye contact and directly looking at the camera.

We wanted our band to be recognised for their style and personalities to appeal to an audience of a similar age and we feel that the video was a success because the audience could relate to the lyrics that the band address directly to them throughout. Self identification was also important to consider as popular style for genre currently revolves around simpler ideas. This is why we chose to base our video just on a simple band performance as we wanted to audience to just focus on the band themselves. We felt that the simpler the video was, the easier it was to represent the band and their individual styles. We styled their clothes accordingly to the indie genre and dressed them in clothes such as ray bans, ankle socks, chinos, shirts, t-shirts, bright colours, patterns and jewellery. For the representations to be realistic, it was important to look at idolised stars so that we could imitate elements and particular conventions. We both focused on our inspirations from indie bands and focused on features such as their styles, attitudes and how they express their emotions and personalities. We found that most bands are very laid back and enjoy having fun because the songs are generally quite uplifting. Another one of our aims was for our band to be role models and to be recognised for their unique style. This way they would appeal to everyone and reach a wider audience. The way our band act in the video has an element of humour as they show that they have a good reputation but can also break rules as well.

Projection was another element to consider but this was another level and did not really apply to our band as the indie genre is generally quite relaxed so projection was not a key issue. We chose a very simple set design which was the same throughout the whole video and only had the instruments for props. We shot the video in our school’s drama studio which was perfect because of the plain background and professional lighting equipment. The lighting that we used was artificial and diegetic. We used the spotlights that pointed towards each of the band members making it clear that the focus is just on them. The space was very confined but this is what we were hoping to achieve as we didn’t want the audience to be distracted by any other surroundings. If the location where the video was shot was too big, the video would not be as successful. Acting was also important because we found that from our draft video, the band members did not look enthusiastic enough and the audience lost interest because they didn’t look like they were having fun which didn’t match the tempo of the song.

It was important to make the band’s style fit the song choice otherwise they would not look realistic when being compared to other artists in the current music industry. Their personality and humorous acting enhances this positive atmosphere and the band members all interact with each other which shows how much they enjoy performing.  By addressing the lyrics of the song directly to the camera, it involves the audience more so that they can relate to it. We also used framing and blocking by editing each of the band members into the video when introducing them at the start of the video. We faded the shot in with the kit in and then edited each band member in when the song started.

When editing the video we used cutaways, we synced the music onto the timeline, used cross cuts, parallel editing, transitions, cropped clips accurately to the correct time on the storyboard, put each individual clip in the correct order, adjusted the brightness and contrast of each clip and ensured that there was a mix of long and short clips. We found that the tempo of the music drove our editing as we made changes that we didn’t necessarily plan on making at the start of the process. The genre is reflected in the mise en scene, themes included, performance and editing. The camera work also impacts meaning. For example the movement, angle and shot distance all enhance the representation of the band. We also repeated some shots that we thought were successful but may not have been that recognisable to the audience after seeing it only once. This was effective because it created an interesting contrast and mixed the type of camera angles we used up. We adjusted the brightness and contrast of each clip to increase the quality and make it look more realistic. The framework of the video is attached to the song and ends within the structure so the video is therefore self contained. We used low key lighting, fading at the start and end of the video and our set dressing involved just the band and their instruments. For the framing we created a contrast by moving the band members around physically but also through editing.

I feel that the representation of our band was an overall success as they do look like any other indie band which was our aim. This was helped by editing, mise en scene and our background knowledge of what indie artists do and look like. 

1b – Audience

I am going to discuss audience in relation to my advanced portfolio which was a music video to the Little Comet’s song ‘One night in October’.

The target audience for our indie band was individuals aged between 16 and 24 who are interested in this particular genre of music. As initial research I produced an audience profile to help generate some ideas about what our target audience prefer and like in other indie bands. This way we could use these conventions and adapt them into something new and more modern. This feedback came in very useful as it helped with making decisions on band names, style, and the representation of them as a whole. It was important to consider the hypodermic needle model when thinking about how we were going to involve our audience. With this model the experiences of the individual are not relevant to the reception of the text. The audience is manipulated by the creators of the text. We used this technique by dressing our band members in a stylish way which will encourage fans and the target audience to imitate them.  Injecting ideas directly into the audience’s minds are crucial so that they do not lose interest throughout the video. We both thought that if we make the genre as clear as we could by addressing it directly to our target audience, they would gain enjoyment from spotting the common indie conventions that we had taken from other inspirational videos. This way our target audience would compare our video to other videos that fit into the same genre which is what we were hoping to achieve.  From the feedback that we gained after finishing the final video, we found that our target audience mostly enjoyed the humour and fun aspect because of the acting which complemented the genre of the song itself. The feedback also showed us that the audience liked the anticipation of waiting for the predictable features and getting involved in the video. The band is mainly targeted at teenage fans based on the genre that they fit into. They appeal to this category of audience because they can be seen as role models because of their recognisable style, they love having fun, they make eye contact with the camera involving the audience and also the song choice allows teenagers to relate to the lyrics because of the story it tells. The band is extremely modern and fit into the current music industry which makes them very likable to this particular audience. Because the band is of a similar age to the target audience that we set, they have a lot in common so they are easy to relate to.

Reception theories also had to be considered which claims that audiences are not always passive due to negotiation and opposition. This particular theory states that texts are not passively accepted by the audience but interprets meanings of text based on cultural background and life experiences. This shows how the target audience of our band can relate to the lyrics of the song. This therefore creates a relationship to the text and the reader. Publicity is also a key factor to consider as we wanted to create a hype for the band before the creating the final music video. We did this by using Facebook and Twitter and getting regular feedback whilst letting fans know our progress on the video. This way we were using a viral advertising technique by getting fans to spread the word about our new indie band. This stage was crucial as the band and the video would not have been as successful as they were without this support from the start as fans were intrigued to know about the progress that they were making. The uses and gratification theory was also considered which involves diversity, personal relationships and identity. These three factors are relevant to my advanced portfolio as the song includes lyrics about a troubled relationship so that the audience can relate to these lyrics to possibly get them through personal problems. Diversity was also a factor as the band tried to be different but still fit into the indie genre. It is hard for bands to be original in the current music industry because the genres are so diverse and are mutating all of the time. Identity is simply the band’s sense of who they are as they are very laid back and just want to have fun. This particular theory states subjective experiences underlie attachment drive and behaviour. This shows the audience examine what they see in the video then apply it to their own living experiences. The audience feedback that we received throughout the process helped us identify what was successful and what could be improved on. This way we could see whether or not we were meeting our target audience’s needs or not.  The theorist Stuart Hall claimed that texts are encoded by the producer and decoded by the reader. The audience therefore uses their imagination to make their own interpretation of what they see. As my advanced portfolio was only a band performance, it is hard for the audience to be imaginative as they can only see the band members and their instruments. If the video was illustrative, this would have been more relevant. From the positive feedback that we received from our audience, we have finally achieved the good reaction we were hoping for. 

In what ways can Inglourious Basterds be considered postmodern? (2000 words)

Inglourious Basterds consists of many postmodern elements taken from a variety of different films and concepts. Quentin Tarantino uses elements taken from his films or other films that he finds inspirational. Some elements are clearer than others as some can be very subtle but still very effective. The title of the film was adapted from the original war film Inglorious Bastards. This is just one of many postmodern elements that Tarantino has used.  This particular film can be considered postmodern in many ways and these elements are used consistently throughout.

In Chapter 1 of the film, Tarantino adds postmodern elements from different films which can either be immediately spotted or some not as clear. The opening scene can relate to the opening of The Sound of Music as the scenery is very open and uplifting. The vibrant colours and realistic setting displayed creates a calm atmosphere which soon fades due to the arrival of Colonel Hans Landa. This spacious and noticeable setting leads to the idea of a typical fairy-tale opening and also links to the name of the chapter ‘Once Upon a Time in Nazi occupied France’. The backdrop is very eye catching to viewers that have seen The Sound of Music and they would be able to associate that setting to the opening scene of Inglourious Basterds which is located in France and looks quite similar to the Austrian location in The Sound of Music. By having this fairy-tale reference in the title it sets the film up as unreal so this is an example of hyper reality.  The tension gradually increases by the music that is played which sounds like a mix of classical and the Spaghetti Western music. By combining these two elements, it shows that Tarantino has taken something original and made something new and creative out of it.  The Spaghetti Western music originates from films such as The Good The Bad & The Ugly. This is a 1966 Italian/Spanish Spaghetti Western film directed by Sergio Leone. The finale to this film shows the three men involved in a gun fight and the iconic music plays to create tension and leads the audience to believe something bad is about to happen. This element works the same in Inglourious Basterds as the music is used in scenes where an event is predictable so by hearing this music it leads the audience to believe that something is going to happen momentarily.  The Spaghetti Western music creates an interesting contrast to the genre of the film as the two are quite different and you wouldn’t expect to hear it in any other war film. Tarantino uses similar shots to Leone in the forest and cellar scene and this is where the postmodern aspect is enhanced.

Another obvious element that Tarantino uses in this film is the use of yellow text. This feature is very consistent in all of his films so this creates a clear link and adds an effective contrast to other war films where text is usually white. By using yellow text it emphasises that it is a Tarantino film so therefore acts like a trademark technique. The setting used in the first chapter is quite controversial. There are times where the backdrop could be argued to either be painted or CGI has been used. An example is when Colonel Hans Landa enters the Alpine house for the first time and there is a view through the window which shows the backdrop outside. I believe in this shot the backdrop is painted as it does not look as realistic compared to the scene outside of the Alpine house. The painted backdrop is self reflexive as the text refers to itself as another text. A common element that can also be seen in this film is the idea of making the set clear to the audience that it is a construction. This shows Tarantino creating humour and making it clear to the audience that it is just a film which in a way takes away the realistic aspect of the story because the set is very basic. The way the camera moves between different locations emphasises that the set is just a construction and is not real. For example when the camera shows the Colonel and Perrier LaPadite having a conversation at the table in the cottage, the camera gradually moves down under the floorboards to show the Jews hiding underneath. This technique is also used as a bird shot view moving over the Colonel and Perrier LaPadite which exposes the ceiling, beams and construction equipment over their heads. This therefore makes it clear to the audience that it is just a film.

Another postmodern element which can be seen at this stage in the film is the shot of the doorframe with the door wide open. This has an intertextual link to a 1956 film called The Searchers by John Ford and this shot was used as it is one of the most iconic scenes of all time. The scene in The Searchers shows the man walking through the door and into the desert and the similar scene in Inglourious Basterds shows the girl running out of the door and through the fields. Humour is also expressed frequently throughout the film and could be categorised as a black comedy as you could laugh at scenes that would not normally be humorous if it wasn’t a film. When Perrier LePadite smokes his pipe and then the Colonel lights his pipe, there is an obvious difference between their statuses as the Colonel’s is much bigger. Some of the murders could also create laughter for the audience as they are so dramatic and graphic; the characters show no emotion for their actions. Another part of this humour is when we see characters speaking a number of different languages. We as the audience find this very amusing as we can find out background information on characters and how intelligent they can be by communicating in different ways to avoid people overhearing their conversations. The Colonel and Perrier LePadite begin by speaking in German but then switch to English to avoid the Jews underneath the floorboards listening to what they are saying.  The Colonel can speak many different languages and another example of this is where the Basterds pretend to speak Italian at the premiere and they are confronted by the Colonel as he can speak fluent Italian. This is also amusing for the audience as it creates an effective contrast from more serious emotions that they have experienced from the previous gory deaths. This element enhances their personalities and it is obvious to the audience that they clearly aren’t Italian.

In Chapter 2, we are introduced to Aldo Raine for the first time and Brad Pitt’s acting and Tennessee accent is very over the top. The accent is exaggerated and he is portrayed to be very dominant and intelligent. His facial expressions are also amusing because it emphasises his strong accent. Hitler is also introduced in this chapter and his personality is also extremely exaggerated. He could be described to be quite pathetic because he is constantly angry and he is wearing a cape as he was having a portrait painted. This parody creates quite a realistic depiction of Hitler. In the Hugo Stiglitz scene, Tarantino uses a voiceover involving Samuel L Jackson to narrate the murders that take place by the Basterds. This particular scene also has a link to another Tarantino film, Kill Bill as he uses the same text displayed and similar deaths. The Spaghetti Western music is used once again in this chapter to continue the tension building up but there is also the use of Blaxploitation music. This has an intertextual link to the 1971 film Shaft directed by Gordon Parks. The Shaft soundtrack album by Isaac Hayes was a huge success and the film was considered a prime example of the Blaxploitation genre. Blaxploitation was very mainstream and targeted an African American audience. The scalping that takes place in this chapter by the Basterds also has a link to The Searchers that was previously mentioned as this method was used in the film. By taking this element and using it in the film allows the audience to associate the two films. In The Searchers, the men would put the scalps on a stick to demonstrate the number of deaths but by showing the Basterds simply scalping the Nazis has the same effect.

In Chapter 3, we are introduced to more main characters such as General Ed Fenech, Archie Hicox and Winston Churchill. We also find out more about Shoshanna. General Ed Fenech played by Mike Myers has an exaggerated English accent which we as the audience find quite funny and stereotypical. Rod Taylor who plays Winston Churchill is shown briefly as Tarantino finds his work very inspirational so was determined to feature him in the film. Taylor came out of retirement so therefore had no Screen Actors Guild card. Tarantino once again uses text on the screen to inform the audience of any important characters such as Goebbels. The sound of the electric guitar from the Blaxploitation track is played and used as a motif several times to introduce specific characters. This is another example of postmodernism as it shows Tarantino adding the element so makes the link from previous texts. The Spaghetti Western music is played as Shoshanna organises the letters on the cinema marquee. The music used in the Hugo Stiglitz scene and the Bear Jew scene sets the tone. An older war film such as Saving Private Ryan has less music and more sound effects which makes the story more realistic. Tarantino includes popular culture references relevant to the time that the film is set and this is a common convention that he uses consistently in his films. This way it appeals to a wider audience as they can relate to the topic because it is what everyone is talking about. Archie Hicox could be compared to Noel Coward, an English director and actor and is known for his wit and flamboyance. He was featured in the film In Which We Serve in 1942. Clearly Tarantino finds this particular actor inspiring so takes elements of the character’s personality and adapts it into something new but still quite similar.

The British are portrayed to be very posh, arrogant, witty and they always have an answer for everything. This is the opposite of the Americans such as Aldo Raine who is much more laid back and knows what he wants. Tarantino is also known for including films within a film and this is a popular postmodern element to use. In Inglourious Basterds, he adds a public information film about nitrate film which Samuel L Jackson also does the voiceover for. This is an effective element to include as Samuel L Jackson’s voice is quite recognisable and the public information film can allow the audience to relate to it. In chapter five David Bowie’s ‘Cat People’ sound track is played whilst seeing Shoshanna getting ready for the premiere. This sounds very stereotypical of the 80’s so creates an interesting contrast to the actual time period that the film is set in. Like the other music that is played in Inglourious Basterds, you would not expect to hear this in any previous war films so this also shows Tarantino using postmodern elements. The scene where Frederick and Shoshanna shoot each other includes many postmodern aspects. It creates a very obvious link to Romeo and Juliet and the slow motion emphasises the contrapuntal music. It also makes the scene more emotive and extends their deaths which highlights Shoshanna’s regret of shooting Frederick because he is a ‘hero’. The birds eye view shot of them both dead on the floor is very similar to Romeo and Juliet so the situation could be described as a messed up romance. This particular scene plays with reality and image and shows their unrequited love.

There is a strong intertextual link to the Odessa Steps and its Descendants scene. This involves the shot of a soldier being shot in the eye which is very recognisable to the audience of those that have seen it. This shot features in Nation’s Pride, the film that is played at the premiere in Inglourious Basterds involving Frederick Zoller. This postmodern element is very common in war films so this link is very relevant. Tarantino also takes elements from a previous war film which is Where Eagles Dare in 1968. This is very similar to Inglourious Basterds in the way in which there are multiple excessive and graphic deaths where the Basterds show no emotion and they just see it as a job and enjoy killing Nazis.

Other Influential references in Inglourious Basterds include elements from True Romance in 1993, Inglorious Bastards in 1978, The White Hell of Pitz Palu, Mitchell and Webb Nazis, Max Linder, Leni Riefenstahl, The Untouchables steps scene, Battleship Potemkin, Sergeant York, Van Johnson, Nations Pride and The Odessa Steps and its Descendants.  The music is probably the most noticeable postmodern element in this war film as it is so different to what is used in other war films and there is usually a lot less used. Tarantino has been described to ‘dig into’ his record collection to take soundtracks from previous films or artists that he found inspirational. One soundtrack that is featured is Slaughter by Billy Preston. This is used in scenes where tension is either being created or a death has just occurred.  A similar soundtrack that is played is The Devil's Rumble by Davie Allen & The Arrows.  

Inglourious Basterds can be categorised as a postmodern war film because it is so different to a traditional war film. It is much more graphic, the Basterds assume that they will win, it is more humorous, there is more to the story such as flashbacks and has disjointed narrative, there is more of a focus on the characters, there is text on the screen, the characters have a consistent immaculate appearance, there are voiceovers, there are self reflexive elements and Tarantino also manages to include his foot fetish which can be seen in many of his films.

One theory that can be applied to Inglourious Basterds is Jacques Derrida's theory, a French philosopher. They proposed that “a text cannot belong to no genre, it cannot be without a genre. Every text participates in one or several genres, there is no genre less text.” This goes against postmodernist thinking as genres in a traditional sense are not helpful as text. They are diverse in nature. The main genres that can be seen in Inglourious Basterds are black comedy and war. Levi Strauss came up with the idea that writers or directors construct texts from other texts by a process of addition, deletion, substitution and transposition. They called this bricolage. Each of the postmodern elements that have been previously stated all fall into these four categories in some way. Examples of addition are the Blaxploitation music and the fairy-tale aspect. These were taken from previous films and simply added into Inglourious Basterds as they can be recognised immediately. Deletion is used as this film is very different compared to other films such as Saving Private Ryan. Tarantino takes elements out and in Saving Private Ryan you see more of the journey and fear of the soldiers, their feelings and emotions, human frailty and there is also not as much shooting or battles. For the substitution of features, Tarantino uses yellow text instead of white text, he substituted the title of the film and also the David Bowie soundtrack rather than playing music that would normally be relevant to war films. Transposition is used with elements taken form The Searchers, Spaghetti Westerns, The Sound of Music, framing and Tarantino also changes the end of the war. Gerard Genette was another French structuralist and developed the term transtextuality. This was developed into 5 sub-groups although only four apply to film. The first subgroup is intertextuality. Tarantino uses a lot of this as he constantly makes links other films and material. The second is the idea of architextuality so the film is designated as a war film by Tarantino and the audience. Metatextuality is explicit or implicit commentary of one text on another text for example when Zoller talks about the film Sergeant York. He believed that he is the German Sergeant York and then also goes on to talk about Nations Pride. Hypotextuality is the relation between text and hypotext. Examples of this include The Searchers, Blaxploitation, the public information film, Spaghetti Western, war films and Hitler.

Inglourious Basterds can be considered postmodern in many ways. Overall the elements Tarantino takes from films and records shows him recontextualising aspects and creating something new. He either takes elements that he either likes or finds relevant and adds them, or simply substitutes them for something else. I think this is very effective and the choice of postmodern elements that he uses works very well with the genre of the film and helps enhance the actors and actresses personality which makes the film so unique because it is not what you would expect.

Define postmodern media with examples.

Postmodernism is the label given to cultural forms since the 1960’s that display self reflexivity, irony, boundaries, nation, gender, race and sexuality. It is a cultural movement that came soon after modernism and is a term applied to a wide-ranging set of developments in critical theory, architecture, art, literature and culture which are characterized as either emerging from or superseding modernism. This style is also characterized by collage, pastiche and irony and often influenced by intertextual references. The postmodern texts deliberately play with meaning and are designed to be read by a literate audience who can relate to these traits of intertextuality. They are generally considered to be anything which makes little attempt to hide the fact that it is not real as it wants you to know that it has been created and for you to recognise the elements from elsewhere. There are no new or original ideas and everything is usually connected in some way. George Ritzer suggested that postmodernism usually refers to a cultural movement from different products such as art, music, films, TV and adverts. He believed it is signified by the breakdown of the distinction between high culture and mass culture, mixing up of time, space and narrative, emphasis on style rather than content and also the blurring of the distinction between representation and reality. The common elements that can be identified in a postmodern text include intertextuality, parody, pastiche, homage, bricolage, simulacra, hyperreality and fragmentation. These are not only in films but can also be seen or heard in TV programmes, adverts, music and music videos.

One postmodern film that I have studied and includes a wide range of these elements is Inglourious Basterds which was released in 2009. In the first chapter there is an intertextual reference to the Sound of Music as the scenery and backdrop is very similar so therefore makes it clear that it is a film. The title of the first chapter is also called ‘Once upon a time in Nazi occupied France’ which represents a fairytale aspect of WW2 which is enhanced by the fantasy style backdrop. Quentin Tarantino also uses Spaghetti Western and Blaxploitation style music throughout the film which is consistently used as a motif to introduce characters or highlight an important scene.  These types of music can be identified in films such as The Searchers in 1956 and Shaft in 2000. In the first scene Tarantino also mixes classical and western music together which is a postmodern element as it shows him combining the two styles of music together to create something new and different. The film is a hybrid as it is a text with more than one genre which is categorised as a black comedy and a war film. This links to Jacques Derrida’s theory and these genres can be recognised although the postmodern elements such as the music and unstereotypical conventions that are used makes it very unique and different from other films in the same categories.  The titles at the beginning of the film are also in yellow text which is a common convention that is used throughout Tarantino’s films so this could be seen as another postmodern element.

In the first chapter there is also the comparison of the two men’s pipes whilst they are smoking and having a conversation at the table. Colonel Hans Landa’s pipe is significantly bigger than Perrier LaPedite’s which could show Tarantino emphasising their different statuses as it adds an element of humour to the scene. Landa’s uniform is also very smart compared to Perrier LaPedite’s clothing which highlights the difference in status. At this point in the film the two characters also switch languages and go from speaking in French to speaking in English. This is an example of Tarantino playing with our expectations. Another intertextual reference that he makes is the shot out of the front door of the farm house which is similar to the one used in The Searchers. The shot shows Shoshanna running away from Colonel Hans Landa and his soldiers as they were trying to kill her whilst her and her family were hiding under the floorboards in the farm house. Tarantino used this shot as he finds John Ford’s work very inspiring and the scene is very iconic so it can be recognised by the audience. In the second chapter we are introduced to Aldo Raine and his accent is very exaggerated which once again adds an element of humour. It is hard to take him seriously because his body language and accent is so over the top. This is similar to the Hitler parody that Tarantino uses which is another over the top depiction of the character. He is so angry and stereotypical he comes across as very pathetic and vain as he is also having his own portrait painted. Tarantino also uses British stereotypes which enhances the humorous aspect because they are so exaggerated. These apply to Mike Myer’s, Michael Fassbender’s and Rod Taylor’s characters. The postmodern element about Rod Taylor is that he specifically came out of retirement because he didn’t have a Screen Actors Guild card. Tarantino admired his work so much that he wanted him to be in the film and play the role of Winston Churchill. For Michael Fassbender’s character, there is a link to Noel Coward from In Which We Serve. He is very witty and the complete opposite to the Americans such as Aldo Raine. This is another example of Tarantino using intertextuality.

He also uses text on screen to inform the audience of any important characters that are significant. Inglourious Basterds is not a stereotypical war film as Tarantino doesn’t use a lot of traditional war conventions. These include the journey, fear, emotion and human frailty. Tarantino includes music that you wouldn’t expect to hear in a war film and lot more music is used. For example the David Bowie soundtrack ‘Cat People’ is played in the scene where Shoshanna is getting ready for the premiere. This is a postmodern element because the song is from the 80’s so therefore would not normally be played in a traditional war film. Other examples include Slaughter by Billy Preston and The Devil’s Rumble by Davie Allen and The Arrows. These tracks are once again used to introduce characters and change the atmosphere in the scene. In films such as Saving Private Ryan, hardly any music is played because it focuses more on emotion. Inglourious Basterds almost glamorises war as the murders are much more graphic and the killings are stylised which adds a hyperreal aspect. This links to John Fiske’s theory as Saving Private Ryan is what you’d expect from a war film, although Inglourious Basterds is very unstereotypical and different.  For example if the audience is unaware of what happened in the war they would find it hard to distinguish the good and bad characters as all knowledge would come from other films and media. Tarantino also changes the end of the war in the film which adds another postmodern twist. 

 Another postmodern element that can be identified is the intertextual link to Romeo and Juliet in the scene where Shoshanna and Frederick shoot one another at the premiere. This introduces the idea of femme fatale as Shoshanna is dressed in red and Frederick is dressed in white which may also highlight the aspect of good and evil.   Slow motion is used which extends the deaths and emphasises the character unrequited romance. The birds eye shot is similar to the one used in Romeo and Juliet and contrapuntal music is played which also plays with reality and image. Tarantino also takes elements from other films such as Where Eagles Dare in 1968, The White Hell of Pitz Palu in 1929, The Good The Bad and The Ugly in 1966, Sergeant York in 1941, True Romance in 1993 and Inglorious Bastards in 1978. Tarantino adapted the title of the film from Inglorious Bastards and took elements of violence and recontextualised them to make them more modern. He also took the elements of the joy of the soldiers killing Nazi’s and the famous ‘shot in the eye’ from the Odessa Steps Battleship Potemkin.  The idea of bricolage from Claude Levi Strauss’s theory can be applied to the film as the fairytale theme and Blaxploitation music is added, the common war conventions are deleted, the yellow text and the title is substituted and he uses transposition from The Searchers, Spaghetti Western music and the framing.

Another postmodern film that uses similar elements is Drive which was released in 2011. The first noticeable postmodern element is the lack of dialogue. The characters show little emotion and reaction to what happens in the film which is very surreal. The characters are also very stylised and unstereotypical. For example we know very little about the main character, The Driver. We do not know his motivation or what he does and he expresses psychopathic traits which makes us as the audience whether he is real or not. This shows how hyperreal his character is. Jean-Francois Lyotard’s theory criticises The Driver as he believed that the idea of absolute freedom is rejected. For example when The Driver drives off into the night in the ending when he has left the money to secure Irene and Benicio’s safety, we don’t know where he is going or what will happen to him. This postmodern element enhances his freedom as we didn’t know anything about him at the start other than being a getaway driver for bad people and we still don’t know what he does after.

 This is the same for Irene, as there are so many unanswered questions because she doesn’t look like a criminal’s wife because she comes across as innocent. There is also a strange connection between Irene and The Driver as we know that their relationship is growing throughout the film but there is a lack of sex which is very strange for a film in this genre. It leaves us to decide whether or not they are actually lovers. We can see this relationship form up until the lift scene where Irene see’s who The Driver really is and what he is capable of doing.  There are two scenes in the film where the lighting and music changes and slow motion is used to enhance the utopian aspect. This represents The Driver trying to fit in with the family and introduces the fairytale theme as roles are identified. This is an example of hyperreality as Standard seemingly accepts The Driver’s presence which is quite strange and creates an awkward atmosphere. These scenes lit with a golden hue represent the film’s idyllic heart. The scene in the lift where The Driver and Irene are kissing is self reflexive because the postmodern elements such as the lighting, music and slow motion complement each other. This is another example of hyperreality because the slow motion represents the scene as a fantasy although when the music fades, the lighting changes and the violence breaks out, it reminds us that it is a reality. The music that is played is very emotive which makes the scene more intimate so therefore draws attention to itself as a text. The connection between the two characters seems very genuine and highlights the human aspect of the film because the moment is very tender and introduces emotion that we have not yet seen. When the music fades, The Driver pushes Irene in the corner and beats up the hit man. This particular scene is very violent and very unexpected because we haven’t yet see The Driver act in that way. This violence shocks Irene as she finally see’s who he really is. This is shown by the expression on her face as she walks out of the lift because she is clearly shocked by this act of violence. The Driver’s face still seems emotionless which portrays his psychopathic behaviour.

Another postmodern element is the fact that the film is set in a big city which is Los Angeles, yet we only see a minority of characters and hardly any extras in the backgrounds of the scenes. This is very hyperreal as the city is used for the characters and shows them to be very shallow and oppressive; therefore it offers little comfort and no escape.  The deserted city is a very unusual aspect as no-one seems to notice these graphic murders and the police seem irrelevant because the murderers never get caught.  This links to Talcott Parson’s theory that society has a structure. The small amount of characters that we are introduced to are all linked but there is no society outside of them. This postmodern element has an intertextual link to the video game Grand Theft Auto. It makes it seem like a playground and portrays the characters to be very vulnerable because of the murders that take place. One scene where you do see people other than the characters we are introduced to is in Cook’s strip club. Here we see a group of topless girls which links to Laura Mulvey’s male gaze theory.  In the scene the room is surrounded by mirrors so this enhances how many girls are in the room as shows how Cook treats the women when he demands them to call 911. The camera lingers around the room until all girls have been recognised and are aware of the presence of The Driver. Another link to the Vice City version of the game is the pink 80’s retro style font used for the title at the start. This works well with the retro 80’s style music and the style of the characters as it doesn’t seem like the film is set in the modern day which is another hyperreal element.

The music is mostly electronic and influenced by European electronic bands such as Kraftwerk. Other examples include ‘Real Hero’ by College feat. Electric Youth and ‘I Drive’ by Cliff Martinez.  Another postmodern element that can be picked out is how the murders get progressively more violent throughout the film. This has an intertextual link to the 2005 film A History of Violence. The style of violence is reminiscent to that in Drive and I believe it is visceral, brutal and hyperreal. Another form of intertextuality that is included is from the 1978 film The Driver. The opening title and the getaway scenes were adapted and recontextualised from this scene. This links to Roland Barthe’s and John Fiske’s that we relate situations to other films that we have seen. For example the car chase in Drive could be related to not only The Driver but also James Bond and other action films.

Postmodern elements are not only in films but also in television programmes. One being Flight of The Conchords. This particular programme is self reflexive. On a number of occasions, Jermaine and Brett make direct address to the camera which is an example of breaking the fourth wall and adding an element of humour because it shows that they are emphasising that it is just a programme and they are involving the audience. Quirky style graphics are also used in the parodies which is another example of a postmodern element. There are also intertextual references made to Prince, The Pet Shop Boys, Shaggy and Daft Punk. A Prince parody is shown in the programme which adds humour and almost humiliates and embarrasses him. Bricolage can also be identified as the programme has elements from sitcoms, musicals, music videos and dramas. Another postmodern aspect of the programme is its semi episodic structure. For example there is a scene which says ‘5 minutes later’. Other elements of parody and pastiche include the range of music genres they cover, music video conventions, it is set in New Zealand and is very stereotypical and the cult of the celebrities. For example the band only has one big fan which is Mel who is obsessed with them. Other intertextual references include Daryll Hall who was in an 80’s pop duo called Hall and Oates. ZZ Top’s ‘Legs’ was also mentioned and Donovan’s ‘Hurdy Gurdy Man’. The Male Gaze can also be applied to this episode as Brett and Jermaine argue over a threesome with the girl so it shows how little respect they have for women and how they look at them.

The IT Crowd is another postmodern television programme. The theme tune to the programme is reminiscent of Gary Numan’s work such as the 1980’s synth pioneer and sounds like computer games from the 80’s. The use of 8bit music is relevant to the programme because it is based around technology. There is a hyperreal aspect to the programme as the characters have almost created their own ‘comedy universe’. This relates to Talcott Parson’s theory as they have their own society held together at the workplace in the office.  Parody is also used at the start as they remake the piracy advert and make it sarcastic which adds an element of humour. Intertextual references to the Soviet scenes are also made and are taken as far as possible. The Russian accent is exaggerated and the music and lighting changes to enhance this hyperreal image. This links to Baudrillard’s theory of distinguishing the difference between reality and image.  Another postmodern element is the use of stereotypes. The German cannibal has stereotypical characteristics such as his outfit and the food he mentions. For example ‘schweinefleisch’. Other examples of intertextuality include Hannibal Lector, Moorcambe and Wise, Fine Young Cannibals, The Pink Windmill Kids, Gorky Park and Oceans 11.  

Postmodern aspects can also be heard in music and seen in music videos. An example is the rap battles that take place at DON’T FLOP. One being the battle between Blizzard and Mark Grist. The two individuals are very different and have very different lifestyles but still work well together because they pick out each other’s flaws to impress their audience but also reinvent topics to target one another. Another example of an artist that is postmodern is Lady Gaga. Her work is described to echo classic 1980’s pop and 1990’s Euro pop. In her 2009 album The Fame Monster she used pastiche and was said to include ‘seventies arena glam, perky ABBA disco and sugary throwbacks like Stacey Q’. Bricolage can be applied to such an artist as she covers a range of genres such as opera, heavy metal, disco, pop and rock and roll. She constantly reinvents her sound and image and takes elements from artists she finds inspirational such as Madonna, Britney, Whitney Houston, Prince and The Scissor Sisters. An example of her using postmodernism is when she wrote her single ‘Boys Boys Boys’. She took elements from Motley Crue’s ‘Girls Girls Girls’ and ACDC’s ‘T.N.T.’ In this mash up you can hear elements from both songs which shows how postmodernism can reinvent sounds by mixing genres. Brian Eno’s ‘death of uncool’ theory can be applied to Gaga as she is known for her unique style which some people find ‘cool’ and others find quite strange and even offensive. There are so many genres and styles out in today’s music industry that it is hard to distinguish which artists are cool and which are uncool. Another example of bricolage is the music video for The 2 Bear’s ‘Church’. The video utilises clips from the traditional Care Bears cartoons. The Care Bears were a 1980’s phenomenon being particularly popular for young girls. The London based duo produces original material consisting of different styles ranging from 2-step, house, hip-hop and soul.

These types of media show how postmodernism is used to express different themes. The specific postmodern elements show how texts can be recontextualised and adapted into something more new and modern.

"Postmodern media manipulate time and space". To what extent does this definition apply to texts you have studied?

From the postmodern texts that I have studied, it is clear that they do manipulate time and space in one way or another. George Ritzer suggested that postmodernism usually refers to a cultural movement such as architecture, art, music, TV, films and adverts. He suggested that postmodern culture is signified by the breakdown of the distinction between high culture and mass culture, the breakdown of barriers between genres and styles, mixing up of time, space and narrative, emphasis on style rather than content and the blurring of the distinction between representation and reality. This idea is supported by the French theorist Jean Baudrillard as he also agrees that surface image becomes increasingly difficult to distinguish from reality and came up with the term ‘all surface and no depth’. This idea of hyper reality is relevant as the audience view images that cease to be rooted in reality and the postmodern elements that are used in the texts help enhance how time and space is manipulated. 

Drive is a 2011 American crime drama thriller that is a prime example of a postmodern film that manipulates time and space. The first postmodern element that could be recognised was the idea that the film is set in Los Angeles although the city seems empty as the film only focuses on a small group of characters. Throughout the film you do not see any extras in the background of each scene which is very unusual for such a big city. The city is used to express the character’s personalities and portrays them to be relatively shallow and oppressive. Therefore it offers little comfort and no escape which makes the city seem smaller than it is because it creates quite a claustrophobic atmosphere because you do not see anyone else other than the small amount of characters that we are introduced to. This shows how space is manipulated as the city seems deserted and no-one seems to notice the horrific murders that take place and the police also seem irrelevant.  This is a hyper real aspect but also links to Talcott Parson’s theory that society has a structure to keep it together. This is not the case for this film because there is minimal characters and a small population so therefore not a society to keep it altogether. There is an intertextual reference to the 1978 film ‘Grease’ as there is a scene that is filmed at ‘Thunder Road’. This is relevant because The Driver has a very similar retro style to the men in Grease although his personality is very different due to the lack of dialogue. This scene where he is driving with Irene and Benicio in the car emphasises the Utopian aspect as it shows The Driver trying to fit in with the family. The scene is also lit with a golden hue which is used consistently throughout the film but this shows the film’s idyllic heart and highlights the stereotypical fairy-tale story and roles. This shows how time and space is manipulated in the scene as slow motion is used to enhance the relationship and connection of the characters.

The film is said to show the theme of literalness versus figurativeness and can be referred to as a modern Grimm fairytale. Traditional roles can be identified but are also reversed at different stages throughout the film. The idea of a ‘happy ever after’ can also be recognised due to The Driver driving off into the night at the end and we do not know where he is heading next.  He can be seen as a hero for saving Irene and Benicio as he leaves the money to secure their safety. Although he can also be seen as a villain as it was his fault that Standard was dead so therefore left Irene as a widow and Benicio fatherless as because left them. The Driver is also a criminal as he is a getaway driver for bad people and he also has psychopathic traits. We do not know much about his past but as the murders get more and more graphic, we can see how angry he is and what he is capable of doing. This is emphasised by the lack of dialogue as we see him as being very insular, dark and violent. This manipulates time and space because we learn his true character over time and leaves us to decide what he actually is from what we see and his actions. He shows no emotion or reaction which is a recognisable theme for all characters in Drive and is also another hyper real aspect because in similar gangster and crime films there would be much more dialogue. The lack of dialogue makes time go much slower because you spend time focusing on their emotions rather than what they are saying. Another element that manipulates the space in the film is the use of bird’s eye shots and maps. This enhances how large the city is but also how small the population is. This also has an intertextual link to the video game Grand Theft Auto. It makes the location seem like a playground and portrays the characters to feel very vulnerable because of the crimes that take place. The majority of the film is also set at night time which is quite common for a film in this genre. Another link to the computer game is the style of font used for the title at the start. The font is similar to the pink 80’s style font used for the Vice City Grand Theft Auto title. This manipulates time as it once again ties in the retro theme and compliments the 80’s electronic music and style of The Driver.  

 This 80’s style music is a very recognisable postmodern element which makes the film feel like it is not actually set in the modern day. Some examples of soundtracks used are ‘Under Your Spell’ by Desire, ‘Nightcall’ by Kavinsky and Lovefoxxx and ‘A Real Hero’ by College feat. Electric Youth. Cliff Martinez built the film’s sonic landscape from ideas influenced by European electronic bands such as Kraftwerk. This manipulates time as the electronic, retro 80’s style music works well with the story, location and style of the characters. The scene in the lift is also very significant as it is self reflexive. Slow motion is used as well as the golden hue lighting, just like the scene in the car. The music played is very emotive which makes the scene more intimate whilst they are kissing but as the slow motion begins and the lighting changes, it draws attention to the film as a text. It introduces emotion that we haven’t seen previously and the connection seems very genuine between The Driver and Irene. This highlights a key human aspect of the film as the moment is very tender. The music gradually fades when the graphic violence is carried out by The Driver on the hit man and Irene finally see’s what he really is. This is enhanced by the expression on her face when Irene walks out of the lift. She is clearly shocked by his actions and his violence that she witnessed emphasises how hyper real his character is as his face still looks emotionless when he realises what he’s done. This scene is an example of how time and space is manipulated because they are in a confined space and time almost stands still but then reality comes back and the violence breaks out.

This links to Jean Baudrillard’s theory that current society has replaced all reality and meaning with symbols and signs, and that human experience is of a simulation of reality ‘like a movie’. It is difficult to separate the image from reality but in this scene the slow motion and lighting enhances the hyper reality but we are then reintroduced back to reality when the music fades and the slow motion ends. Claude Levi Strauss’s theory can also be applied as the 80’s style music, lack of dialogue and retro style characteristics are added. All emotion and reactions are deleted from the characters and the small population of people in the film even though it is such a big city. The pink 80’s style font is substituted along with the fairytale aspect as well as the idea of masculinity. For the transposition area of the theory, the lift scene is very iconic as well as the violence, the deserted city and the elements from the 1978 film ‘The Driver’. The title and the getaway scenes are very similar which also shows how time and space has been recontextualised in Drive.

Another film that manipulates time and space is the 2009 film ‘Inglourious Basterds’. The director Quentin Tarantino includes a wide range of postmodern elements to enhance these two aspects. For example in the first chapter, the set is very exposed and Tarantino makes it clear to the audience that it is just a film due to him showing the beams in the ceiling. This makes it clear that it is a construction. Also the camera moves downwards from upstairs to underneath the floorboards showing the Jews hiding underneath them. This is another example of Tarantino exposing the set and manipulating the space. Fake backdrops are also used throughout the film that are either painted or have used CGI. An example is through the farmhouse windows where the outside scenery can be seen. This is another example of how space is manipulated as it is not actually real and is self reflexive because it refers to itself as a text. Another example of how space is manipulated is in the first chapter where there is an intertextual reference to ‘The Sound of Music’. Here the scenery makes it clear that it is a film once again but also introduces the fairy-tale aspect of WW2. The scenery is unreal and a fantasy which emphasises the hyper real aspect of the film.

Other intertextual links include the Spaghetti Western and Blaxploitation music that is used. These may be taken and adapted from films such as ‘The Good The Bad and The Ugly’ in 1966 and ‘Shaft’ in 2000. This manipulates time as both genres of music are very different but strangely work quite well together. This type of music is not common in traditional war films which makes Ingourious Basterds so unique and different. In the first scene, Tarantino also mixes classical and western music together which manipulates time as he recontextualises the two genres of music into one and they are from two completely different time periods. These two styles of music are mostly used to introduce key characters and are used as a motif throughout the film. For example there is a cutaway scene which shows Goebbels having sex with his interpreter and the Blaxploitation music enhances their character and creates a very unpredictable contrast. The music that is used does not necessarily fit in the genre of the film and in traditional war films, much less music was played. For example Tarantino uses a David Bowie soundtrack called ‘Cat People’ in the premiere scene when Shoshanna is getting ready. This is very unstereotypical for a war film and manipulates time because the song was from the 80’s and the film was set in a completely different time period.

Tarantino also includes popular culture references relevant to the time that the film was set and includes what everyone was talking about at that time to appeal to a wider audience. He also uses the British public information film about nitrate film with a voiceover by Samuel L Jackson. This manipulates time as it adds a stereotypical twist as not many traditional war conventions are used in the film, but this particular aspect seems relevant. This links to John Fiske’s theory as a film such a Saving Private Ryan is what you would expect from a war film although Inglourious Basterds is very different. For example if the audience is unaware of what happened in the war they would find it hard to distinguish the good and bad characters because all of the knowledge comes from other films they have previously seen and from the media.

 Tarantino also uses similar shots to the ones in The Good The Bad and The Ugly such as the forest and cellar scene. This shows how time and space is manipulated as they are from very different time periods although space has been recontextualised but still used in a similar way because the locations are the same. Tarantino also portrays the war to be glamorised as the murders are much more dramatic and graphic than traditional war films and the Basterds show no emotion. The killings are also more stylised so therefore are more hyper real. This has a link to the 1968 film ‘Where Eagles Dare’ as the soldiers enjoyed killing Nazi’s and just saw it as a job because they showed no emotion. The idea of bricolage can be applied as the film includes more than one genre which includes black comedy and war. Examples of addition include the fairytale aspect and the Blaxploitation music. Common war conventions such as the journey, fear, emotion and human frailty are deleted from the film which manipulates time as we don’t get any background information other than what we see from the characters.  Yellow text, the title from Inglorious Bastards in 1978 and the David Bowie soundtrack is substituted. For the transposition, Tarantino takes elements from The Searchers, the Spaghetti Western music and the framing. The framing is what manipulates space and Tarantino also changes the end of the war which manipulates time as he changes what happened in history. The Nation’s Pride film is also played in Inglourious Basterds which has a strong intertextual link to the Odessa Steps scene in Battleship Potemkin. Tarantino takes the elements such as being shot in the eye and uses them in the film and another example is scalping taken from The Searchers where they use to keep the scalps on a long pole. This manipulates time as Tarantino plays a film within a film. The hyper real element of this is that Nation’s Pride is a traditional war film whereas Inglourious Basterds isn’t.

The final film that I have studied and manipulates time and space is the 2011 film ‘Kill List’. Ben Wheatley films a lot of scenes where the camera always seems to be one step ahead. This therefore makes it hard for the audience to keep up and emphasises the disjointed narrative because there is no actual story to the film. This shows that time is manipulated as the film is almost fast forwarded because the sound and image overlap so you know what to expect next. The transitions between scenes are very separate and don’t link which makes it very hard to keep up with the film at times. Slow motion is also used, for example in the sword fighting scene with Jay, Shel and their son. This is significant because it links to the ending so by using slow motion it makes it clear that it will be relevant to the story at some point as it is not used in any other scene in the film. The slow motion also creates tension and works well with the sinister music and manipulates time because it is portrayed to be a flashback. There is also a scene where Jay’s partner Gal looks directly at the camera so this breaks the fourth wall and manipulates space because he makes it clear that it is just a film. The idea of having a ‘boss’ or a ‘villain’ in the film makes you feel like you’re being watched and creates quite a claustrophobic atmosphere. The Client refers to the men as ‘cogs’ and the job as a ‘reconstruction’. This shows that it almost a race against time for them to complete their tasks. The unsteady and unflinching camera makes the audience decide whether or not they want to watch and leaves them on the edge of their seat. This manipulates space as it makes it more realistic and involves the audience more. The ending also has no closure and there are many unanswered questions that could be asked. The director describes the film as a ‘trap’ as you go along with watching the film and follow the story but then the most unexpected happens at the end and leaves you to use your imagination to what actually happens. This relates to Baudrillard’s theory as the audience can be easily mislead by things that appear to be real but are not. A lot of hyper real images are used throughout the film which you wouldn’t expect to see in a film of this particular genre.

The film is also based on reoccurring nightmares as Wheatley wanted to scare the audience and think of the worst things possible that could happen. The film as a whole feels like a dream because there is no clear story and leaves you to decide what happens and who the characters really are. At the end we find out that all of the cult know each other and this is very similar to Hot Fuzz when they all un-mask themselves and we know their true identity. This makes you wonder whether it was a race to be known as the chosen one as Jay was crowned as soon as he killed his girlfriend and son. Talcott Parson’s theory goes against this particular film as he said that society has a structure but this film has no structure at all. The family has no structure because of all of the arguments and financial issues that they are facing as Jay has been out of work for roughly 8 months. There is an intertextual link to the 1975 film ‘Race with the Devil’. Wheatley took elements from the film from what he can remember as a child, rather than researching and copying them as an adult. This way he adapted them into his own style. He also took elements from 1970’s and 1980’s sociorealist TV which manipulates time because it is a very different genre but by combining the two its shows Wheatley creating something new.

Television programmes are also able to manipulate time and space. The IT crowd is one example. The theme tune for the programme sounds like a 1980’s computer game and is reminiscent of Gary Numan’s work such as the 1980’s Synth Pioneer. This shows how time is manipulated as they take these elements and make a theme by referring to the past by using 8bit music. The programme is hyper real as the characters have almost created their own ‘comedy universe’. This once again relates to Talcott Parson’s theory and the idea of fragmentation as they have their very own society and workplace which holds them altogether. This shows how space is used as they are mostly just filmed in the office which is relatively confined. A reference to the Soviet scenes is also included and is taken as far as possible. The Russian accent is introduced and the music, lighting and costumes change to make it more realistic. This manipulates time as it is referring to the past but also making it more modern and humorous. There is also a scene where Jen talks to Moss as if she was a psychiatrist which manipulates space because she almost creates her own environment. There is also an intertextual reference to The Pink Windmill Kids ‘There’s somebody at the door’. This manipulates time as it is not relevant to the programme itself but adds humour as it reminds the audience of a previous programme.

Another television programme is Flight of The Conchords. This programme is also self reflexive as Brett and Jermaine repeatedly make direct address to the camera. This is another example of characters breaking the fourth wall so are therefore manipulating space. Quirky style graphics are also used. There are many intertextual references made such as Prince, Daft Punk, Pet Shop Boys and Shaggy. The parodies are included for the comedy aspect of the programme. The programme also has a semi episodic structure to inform the audience what day of the week or what time it is. This manipulates time as it shows what has happened when. For example, 5 minutes later. Bricolage can also be identified as the programme has elements from a sitcom, musical, music video and a drama.  Daryll Hall can also be recognised in the programme who was a member of the 1980’s pop duo ‘Hall and Oates’. This manipulates time as it introduces a whole new genre of music to the programme and most people would be able to recognise him. The programme is also set in New Zealand where many stereotypes can be identified. This manipulates space because it is so obvious where it is set due to their accents, outfits and tourist posters.

Music can also manipulate time and space. Artists such as M.I.A. with her song ‘Bad Girls’ includes a range of different genres and sounds such as dancehall, oriental, middle-eastern, world beat and R&B. This shows how time is manipulated as these genres are from very different time periods but she has recontextualised them and made them into something more new and modern. Another artist that uses the same process is Lady Gaga. She takes elements from artists that inspire her and adapts them to create something new. Her work echoes classic 1980’s pop and 1990’s Euro pop. An example of her manipulating time is when she wrote her song ‘Boys Boys Boys’. She took elements from Motley Crue’s ‘Girl Girls Girls’ and ACDC’s ‘T.N.T’. The songs all sound very similar but the elements are very recognisable even though they were released at very different times and are different genres of music. Gaga constantly reinvents her sound and image and bricolage can be applied as she can cover a range of different genres such as opera, heavy metal, pop, disco and rock and roll. She also manipulated time by doing a special performance for Bill Clinton when he was president as Marilyn Monroe did the same for John F Kennedy. This was seen as a historical event in her career so was clearly very special for her and her fans. Jonathan Kramer’s music theory can also be applied to Lady Gaga. She challenges the barrier between high and low styles, she considers music not as autonomous but as relevant to cultural, social and political contexts, she embraces contradictions and locates meaning and even structure in listeners, more than in scores, performances or composers.  Because of her unique and very unusual style, she can be considered cool in an ironic ‘I know it’s bad, but it’s so bad it’s good’ kind of way. She has so many elements from previous artists over the years such as Madonna, Britney, Whitney Houston, Cyndi Lauper and Grace Jones but it’s hard to compare her to anyone else because she is so unique. She fits into Jean Baudrillard’s theory as she is a prime example of how the barriers between art, literature and a wider political and social life are now non-existent. She has also done a lot of charity work throughout her career just like Chris Martin and Bono.  Gaga has created a new status for art culture. Art does not represent or reflect reality, it is reality. She shows this through her strong opinions, beliefs, lyrics and iconic style. This shows how she manipulates time and space with her confidence.

Summer Camp’s ‘Round The Moon’ is another example of how time and space can be manipulated. Their musical style has been described as ‘21^st Century alt pop’ but also has influences from 60’s girl groups and 80’s synth pop. Their lyrics are quite dark and deal with failed relationships, conflicts and teenage obsessions. This also links to Kramer’s theory as they break the barrier to appeal to their target audience as they can relate to the same situations. Their artwork and music videos are influenced by American culture from the 1960s-1980’s. This shows them manipulating time as they take elements from different cultures and reinvent them. Brian Eno’s ‘Death of Uncool’ theory is a perfect example of how artists are manipulating time and space. There are too many styles around which keep mutating constantly so it makes it harder to distinguish what is ‘cool’ and ‘uncool’. This means that they are constantly breaking barriers and reinventing sounds and there is a much wider range of genres out there that many people do not yet know about. The way technology is evolving is also speeding up this process due to people’s access to IPods, smart phones and DABs. This has made access to music much easier with things such as Spotify, The XFactor, ITunes, downloading from the internet and getting free CDs from newspapers. Sampling also takes place in the music industry which allows artists to manipulate time and space by copying sounds and mixing different genres. This is also known as Pick n’ Mix culture. Baudrillard’s idea of ‘surface over depth’ is also relevant as some artists are only known for their image and style, rather than their musical background.

These postmodern texts and media show how easy it is to manipulate space and time whether it is location, sound or style. Some elements are more recognisable than others but are all equally effective due to how they are used. No matter what media it is, whether it is film, television programmes or music, they all express time and space in different ways.